Explore some of the more technical aspects of computer capabilities.
Here you'll find reference materials and info regarding the inner workings of computers in general and the Mac in particular.





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Analog and Digital video ports:
These include the two-row DB-15 analog port used on old desktop Macs up to G3 models. Many older PCI video cards with DB-15 ports also have the more common VGA analog port, as do newer PCI cards featuring digital ADC ports and many of those are equipped with DVI; Miniature DVI ports are found on G4 laptops, with dual-link mini-DVI or full-size DVI ports appearing on most PowerBooks, iMacs, MacBooks and Pro models.
Apple's proprietary ADC port included power and USB connections along with data and video, all in one cable, for connection to Apple flat-panel LCD Cinema displays. No other monitors ever used Apple's ADC and the port soon disappeared. (ADC ports are easily identified by their rounded ends and three rows of 10 pins.) Video cards with digital ADC ports typically include a second port, either an old analog VGA or digital DVI port.
Common digital video ports include DVI-I (which also carries analog), and compatible DVI-D and DVI-A ports (both of which are digital-only). Digital cables over 10-feet in length must be top-quality to minimize loss/noise, and long runs may require use of fiber optics.







Resurrecting older Macs:
First, the PRAM battery. Apple ][s and early Macs use the same 3.6v lithium battery in use today - except that they were sometimes soldered to the logic board. Best solution is to install a 1/2AA battery box in these machines. (The 3.6v lithium battery can also be used to replace square 4.5v batteries found in old Performas, and a full-size 3.6v AA is half the cost and twice the size - go figure.)
The first Mac thru the MacPlus had an exterior battery door and used a fat AA-size lithium battery which may still be available. Next, upgrade to the newest OS appropriate to CPU's age. See below for OS and machines dating back to the MacPlus and beyond.



Early Operating Systems (on 400K, 800K diskette).
Back in the day of the first 128K Mac, the 512K "Fat Mac," FX and others, we had no need of System version numbers and names; the Mac's OS was simply known as, well, the MacOS. Back then, both the Operating System and application program fit nicely on a single 400K "floppy" (actually the first 3.5" hard-shell Sony diskette that would become industry standard), with enough space left over for a document or two.

System 6.0.5 and 6.0.8 (MultiFinder): MacPlus to SE.
The ancient MacPlus and early SEs with 800K drives can't go past System 6.0.8 without extensive modification to drives and logic board to meet minimum System 7 specs. An SE equipped with 1.4MB diskette drive(s) and other modifications could be made to run System 7.

System 7.5.5: Good choice for 68030 and 68040 Macs, including the SE/30.
7.5.5 requires a 1.4MB diskette drive and 8 to 16MB RAM. (System 7.5.5 can gobble up 4-5 times as much RAM as System 7.0 did on 68K machines.) Communications via bulletin boards (BBS) was the norm at that time.

System 7.6.1: Minimum Internet, from SE/30 to Performas and PowerPCs.
32 MB of RAM and System 7.6.1 _might_ get you online today, but you won't get very far without using Cyberdog or hacking Netscape for use on certain machines like the SE/30. This configuration, System 7.6.1, represents the bare-bones minimum required to allow email and internet on early Macs and PowerBooks. System 7.6.1 also supported the multiple SCSI bus of 603e/604e PowerPC Macs.

OS 8.0: Skip it.
Apple used license of this System release to terminate Mac clones. (There were at least six at the time, including Motorola, UMAX and Power Computing.) OS 8 was actually the last of System 7, unofficially version 7.7. OS 8 was also the first MacOS that came with a price tag.

OS 8.1: HFS Plus, runs on all PowerPC 601, 603 and 604 Macs.
OS 8.1 Introduced HFS+ extended format, along with more than a few other significant changes including enhanced software capabilities and communications. 8.1 was the _real_ beginning of the MacOS version 8. Runs on almost all PowerPC Macs up to the G3 Risc series processors (also known as the 750 chip).

OS 8.5 and OS 8.6: All PowerPC Macs.
Improved interface and control over view functions with global preference settings. 8.5 introduced Sherlock; 8.6 expands on search capability, indexing. Top end for 603e CPUs. If you can't use OS9 (which will not install on older PPCs), 8.5 or 8.6 is your best bet.

OS 9.1: Top end OS for 604ev Macs.
OS 9.1 will run on 604, G3, and a few G4 Macs. Newer G4s and G5s will not startup with OS9, but can run OS9.2.2 and apps using OSX Classic Mode (provided OS9 drivers were included with hard drive format under OSX).

OS 9.2.1 and Update 9.2.2: G3 and G4 Macs.
With improved security, data encryption, and many communications enhancements, OS 9.2.1 was the last commercial release of System 9, followed by one final update to OS 9.2.2. Update 9.2.2 contains improved OSX "Classic Mode" compatibility and additional hardware drivers for G4 CD and DVD burners. Last, best browser under OS 9 was Netscape 7.02. OS 9.2.2 is absolutely necessary if you're still dragging "Classic" OS9 apps. Tiger 10.4 was the last version of Mac OSX to recognize OS9 "Classic mode" and legacy software (see below); Leopard 10.5 will not recognize legacy software (by design?), nor can Intel machines run legacy software.

OSX versions 10.0 Cheetah, 10.1 Puma and 10.2 Jaguar: G3s, G4s, G5s.
Slow, incomplete, not a pleasant experience. OS 10.0 thru 10.2.x are best avoided; any machine capable of running 10.0-10.2 Jaguar should be running Tiger (10.4) or later, if possible.

OS X 10.3.0 thru 10.3.9 Panther: G3s, G4s, G5s.
Officially, all G3s - except the very first (beige) models and the first G3 PowerBook - will run OS X versions thru 10.3.9; in reality, RAM requirements and hard drive space are determining factors. All G4s will run Panther nicely; a few later G4s and all G5 models startup in OS X only, but all machines up to Intel Macs (and Leopard 10.5, below) will run OS9 apps in Classic Mode on HDDs with OS9 drivers installed. Unofficially, almost any Mac with PCI architecture allowing addition of a USB card can run OSX with a little tinkering. Internet protocols now require Panther 10.4 or later and a current web browser (Safari and Firefox are recommended).

OSX 10.4.0 thru 10.4.11 Tiger: G4s, G5s, Intel Macs.
Written to accommodate the 64-bit G5 processor and newer Intel Macs, Tiger is virtually identical to Panther with a few added bells and whistles, many of which require a broadband connection to the internet (as does the Software Update function built into both Panther and Tiger). All G5 Macs should be running (fully updated) Tiger 10.4 or later MacOS. Early Intel Macs will happily run either Tiger 10.4 or Leopard 10.5 Operating Systems; later Intel-powered Macs may require Leopard.

OSX 10.5 Leopard: G5s, Intel Macs.
Official release was on Friday, October 26th, 2007. Apple finally dropped legacy support for OS9 and Classic Mode with Leopard 10.5, regardless of machine's processor (G5 or Intel). Leopard boasts "300 new features" including a few major additions and enhancements.

OSX 10.6 Snow Leopard: Intel Macs only
A highly polished version of Leopard, Snow Leopard (OS 10.6) was released a month ahead of schedule. Snow Leopard is a $29 upgrade for licensed Leopard 10.5 users. Visit Apple's web site for a complete introduction to the newest MacOS at <http://www.apple.com/macosx/>.






What is it, and why do I need more?
Adding RAM (Random Access Memory) is probably the most cost effective and significant upgrade step you can take, even for a brand-new computer. Ram is where everything takes place; when you startup your Mac, its Operating System loads into RAM. When you launch an application program, it also loads into RAM. RAM is where creation and editing take place; your work is only written to disk (hard drive) when you save it (in most cases - some applications save automatically). In the meantime, most everything you do or change takes place in RAM (which is why it's important to save your work often).

More RAM means faster processing. It also allows you to have as many applications open simultaneously as your RAM will allow; more RAM = more applications. If you use your computer for more than simple word processing and email, you will benefit from adding RAM.

Memory (RAM) types:
RAM modules (sometimes referred to as DIMMs, Dual Inline Memory Modules) come in a variety of sizes, types and brands, with various technical specifications. RAM is extremely machine-specific; sometimes a RAM module can be moved from Mac to Mac within a machine "family" (i.e. same processor and bus specs), but this is rare. Modules are keyed to fit matching RAM slots.
Research your machine's requirements, found in your User Manual, by checking your System Profile, or by researching machine's model number (usually MxxxxLL/A). Buy memory from reputable vendors; bad RAM can bring down the entire system, prevent startup, and cause all sorts of nonsense (usually cured by removal). Or, we'll do the research and installation for you.

 What happens if I run out of RAM?
If an application was thoughtfully written and carefully beta-tested prior to release, there might be a subroutine that periodically checks memory management, but don't count on it. A program will more likely freeze, quit without warning or simply stop responding to input. If you experience frequent freezing and apps that unexpectedly quit, you probably need to add more RAM - especially if the freezing problem affects more than one application.
Your Operating System requires a fair amount of memory all by itself; and you can never have too much. A RAM upgrade is probably the single most cost-effective improvement available for hard working Macs. Check your machine's documentation for memory specs, requirements and bank info.






Early History:
In its short but tumultuous history (so far), the "web" has morph'd from Dr. Jon Postel's DARPA model under the U.S. Department of Defense - a redundant network of nodes - to a thriving, international/global network of networks. To its credit, the Federal Government has long taken a hands-off approach, avoiding any "internet governance" and only addressing Domain Name Services (DNS) as necessary to facilitate internet operation on a global scale with respect to borders, languages and technology. The model for control of the internet's entire addressing scheme has changed periodically, as agreements between governments and multinational corporations expire and are renegotiated. The potential for abuse is enormous. ( See the Generic Top Level Domain Memorandum of Understanding: <http://www.gtld-mou.org>)
In 1997, the U.S. Department of Commerce under the Clinton administration was directed to privatize DNS, " ...in a manner that increases competition and facilitates international participation in its management." Through a cooperative agreement between the National Science Foundation (NSF) and Network Solutions Incorporated (NSI), a $35-per-year fee structure was established for DNS registration and management via NSI's Network Information Center (aka, the interNIC) which was later purchased by VeriSign.
The Web now fans out from its backbone of DNS name/number servers (most located in the United States) to countless secondary networks and subnets worldwide with assistance from the U.S. Government, whose continued participation in a global internet is (of course) crucial. However, the idea of putting control of DNS in the hands of the private sector may prove to be another matter. The root DNS registry is currently under license from the U.S. Department of Commerce National Telecommunications and Information Administration, the NTIA and the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, the IANA. The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, ICANN, certifies specific registrars to sell and manage domain names. These registrars are private-sector corporations (including VeriSign and those listed below).

Top Level Domains (TLDs) are split into three categories:
Country Codes (ccTLD). These domains are all two-letter suffixes assigned to about 250 countries world-wide.
Generic Domains (gTLD). The largest of these, by far, is the .com domain owned by VeriSign.
.aero reserved for the air transport industry by SITA
.com/.net/.cc/.tv, all owned by VeriSign (January 2002)
.org owned by Public Interest Registry (January 2003) is no longer noncommercial
.biz owned by NeuLevel Incorporated
.coop for co-ops, sponsored by the National Cooperative Business Association (NCBA)
.info owned by Afilias Limited
.museum, the Museum Domain Management Association
.name reserved for individuals, operated by Global Name Registry
.pro operated by RegistryPro, Ltd.
.gov reserved for the U.S. Government
.edu reserved for educational institutions, operated by Educause
.mil reserved for the U.S. Military, operated by the Department of Defense
.int for organizations established by international treaty, operated by the IANA
(New domains may have been added to the gTLD category.)
Infrastructure Domain .arpa, the Address and Routing Parameter Area, exclusively for internet infrastructure use and operated by IANA.
Current agreements and amendments (most in pdf format) can be found on the NTIA web site: <http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/domainname/nsi.htm>
Registration and Registrar information is available from VeriSign or the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN): <http://www.arin.net/>
NOTE: Alternative networks include: name.space, AlterNIC, eDNS, WWW2, and others.

Current Trends and Transitions:
Having started with bulletin boards (BBS) using terminal programs (Zterm and BBS-supplied apps), internet access is now achieved using a browser like Safari or Firefox with set standards, thru an internet service provider (ISP), over existing infrastructure such as phone and cable lines or satellite dish. (Electric power lines may also be used for internet and communications, although this is still in experimental stages.)
The internet had a "gold rush" of sorts - the notorious "dot-com bubble" - when get-rich-quick schemes of all sorts flooded the new online internet market. Those ideas with merit survived and flourished (eBay, Amazon,Yahoo (briefly) now Google, to name a few); but the majority of "dot-coms" were so ill-conceived or outright fraudulent that the period became known for spectacular and costly failures.
The 'net has also survived a kind of "wild west" period with little or no official regulation or control, thanks in large part to the U.S. government's hands-off approach to internet regulation. However, there is growing concern over spam and spoofs, pornography, web sites selling illegal goods, so-called "online predators" and other problems currently being addressed at the user level by various filters and parental controls. In addition, America's antiterrorism stance has justified eavesdropping and domestic spying and threatens to become the ultimate excuse for the "Big Brother" of 1984 fame. In the private sector, Google's controversial decision to cooperate with Chinese government restriction of unapproved web sites is an early example of censorship on a corporate level.
The current battle for control of internet access by telephone and cable service providers - along with tiered broadband access - might prove to be an even bigger problem. If broadband ISPs begin hampering access to competing networks, things could quickly get ugly. And if any broadband provider gains monopoly status, look for already exorbitant prices to soar. One of the most refreshing and powerful aspects of today's internet is its wide-open, unregulated, global access to information of all sorts (at least here in the States), but those days may be numbered as corporations and governments begin to apply control and attempt regulation.

Domain name registration.
VeriSign has done well to stay out of the spotlight as the internet continues to sort itself out. Registration of domain names is strictly controlled in some ways - country codes for example - but wide open in others. Registrars range from giant VeriSign (still in control of .com and .net) to neighborhood ISPs acting as agents. Registration schemes abound. Services offered by site designers, ISPs, and VeriSign itself range from the bottom-line and regulated biannual fee, to substantial (unjustified) monthly rates charged to the unwary. Registration of a domain name expires at two or five year intervals, to the second. If it goes neglected, someone else could own it. Best to use a reliable registrar and web host.
Your relationship with your web host (ISP) is important for a variety of reasons beyond just its charge for hosting; it might best be viewed as a partnership. Be sure to factor-in your site's use of forms, JavaScript, CGIs, storage requirements, and other qualifications when selecting a host. Then review service contracts for potential web hosts, along with host's past history, equipment, and additional services offered before making a long-term commitment. Having a reliable host capable of managing a variety of domain issues can be a big plus.
Hosting your own web site requires a static IP (Internet Protocol) address, high-speed broadband (3Mbps+), and a fast server. All of which is a possibility for those willing to tackle the technicalities. (The big bottleneck is true broadband availability.) Does it make sense to host your own? Probably not, unless you have bigger plans involving T-1 lines and hosting space, or web sales. It takes time, and it's not easy.
Finding a suitable - and available - domain name presents a problem, too, especially with "speculators" hijacking every name they can think of, then offering these for resale at extortion prices. (As I recall, the domain name "bank.com" sold for $3M.) Many ISPs will snag a domain name for you, automatically, the instant it becomes available - for a reasonable fee. Domain names become quite valuable when you consider promotional materials, investment in site resources, email addresses, and advertising. When checking availability of a given domain name, it might be best to look it up thru a secure server rather than openly checking the interNIC.